MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES CLASS 10 (NCERT) NOTES 

Haban comes to Guwahati with his father from a remote village. He sees people getting into strange house like objects which move along the road. He also sees a “kitchen” dragging a number of house along with it. He is amazed and asked his father “Why don’t our houses move like the one we saw in Guwahati, Ba?” Ba replies, “These are not houses, they are buses and trains. Unlike our houses these are not made of bricks and stones, metal like iron and alluminium are used in making these. They do not move on their own. They are driven by an engine which needs energy to work.” Read the given passage and answer the following questions. (1mx4q=4m) 1. What does Haban see in Guwahati that amazes him? 2. How does Ba explain the difference between the objects in Guwahati and their houses in the village? 3. What materials are used to make the objects in Guwahati, according to Ba? 4. How are the objects in Guwahati powered and made to move?

Items Made from Metals in Our House:

1. Cutlery (forks, knives, spoons)

2. Cooking pots and pans

3. Light fixtures

4. Electrical wiring

5. Appliances (refrigerators, washing machines)

6. Plumbing fixtures (faucets, pipes)

7. Furniture (chairs, tables)

8. Hand tools (screwdrivers, hammers)

Source of Metals:

Metals are extracted from minerals found in the Earth's crust. These minerals are embedded in rocks and require refinement to obtain the metals.

Importance of Minerals in Our Lives:

1. Construction: Minerals are used in buildings, roads, and railways.

2. Transportation: Cars, buses, trains, and planes are manufactured using minerals and powered by resources from the Earth.

3. Machinery: Implements and machinery also rely on minerals.

4. Nutrition: Even the food we eat contains minerals.

Historical and Cultural Significance:

Throughout history, humans have utilized minerals for various purposes, including livelihood, decoration, festivities, and religious ceremonies.

A bright smile from toothpaste and minerals Toothpaste cleans your teeth. Abrasive minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium oxide and various phosphate minerals do the cleaning. Fluoride which is used to reduce cavities, comes from a mineral fluorite. Most toothpaste are made white with titanium oxide, which comes from minerals called rutile, ilmenite and anatase. The sparkle in some toothpastes comes from mica. The toothbrush and tube containing the paste are made of plastics from petroleum. Find out where these minerals are found? 1. What role do abrasive minerals play in toothpaste, and can you name some of these minerals mentioned in the passage? 2. How does fluoride contribute to toothpaste, and what is its source in terms of a mineral mentioned in the passage? 3. What minerals are responsible for making most toothpaste white, and what are their sources as mentioned in the passage? 4. The passage mentions the materials of toothbrushes and toothpaste tubes. What are these materials, and where do they come from in terms of their source materials?

All living things need minerals Life processes cannot occur without minerals. Although our mineral intake represents only about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of nutrients, they are so potent and so important that without them we would not be able to utilise the other 99.7 per cent of foodstuffs. 1. Why are minerals essential for all living things, according to the passage? 2. What percentage of our total intake of nutrients do minerals represent, as mentioned in the passage? 3. What is the significance of minerals in relation to our ability to utilize food, according to the passage? 4. In a nutshell, why would life processes be impossible without minerals, as explained in the passage?

What is a Mineral?

Definition of a Mineral:

- Geologists define a mineral as a "homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure."

Variety of Minerals in Nature:

- Minerals exist in various forms in nature, from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.

Relationship Between Minerals and Rocks:

- Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances known as minerals.

- Some rocks, like limestone, are made up of a single mineral, while most rocks contain multiple minerals in different proportions.

Abundance of Minerals:

- Although more than 2,000 minerals have been identified, only a few are commonly found in most rocks.

Formation and Diversity of Minerals:

- The formation of a specific mineral depends on the combination of elements and the physical and chemical conditions under which it forms.

- These factors result in a wide range of characteristics for each mineral, including colors, hardness, crystal forms, lustre, and density.

Classification by Geologists:

- Geologists use these properties to classify and identify minerals.

Study of Minerals by Geographers and Geologists Geographers study minerals as part of the earth’s crust for a better understanding of landforms. The distribution of mineral resources and associated economic activities are of interest to geographers. A geologist, however, is interested in the formation of minerals, their age and physical and chemical composition. 1. Who studies minerals as part of the earth's crust for a better understanding of landforms?    a) Geologists    b) Economists    c) Geographers    d) Chemists 2. What aspect of minerals is of particular interest to geographers?    a) Formation of minerals    b) Age of minerals    c) Economic activities related to minerals    d) Physical and chemical composition of minerals 3. What do geologists focus on regarding minerals?    a) Economic activities related to minerals    b) Distribution of mineral resources    c) Formation, age, and composition of minerals    d) Landform analysis 4. In the context of the passage, which discipline is primarily concerned with the economic aspects of minerals?    a) Geologists    b) Geographers    c) Economists    d) Chemists All: C

Classification of Minerals for General and Commercial Purposes:

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals:

- Minerals can be categorized based on how they occur in nature.

Ores and Mineral Concentration:

Ores: Minerals are typically found within ores, 

• which are accumulations of minerals mixed with other elements.

Economically feasibility: 

Extraction of minerals from ores is economically feasible only when the mineral content is concentrated enough.

More content = commercial viability.

Types of Formations:

- The formation or structure in which minerals are located affects the ease of mining and the cost of extraction.

Main types of formations :

Mineral Occurrence in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:

Cracks, Crevices, Faults, and Joints: Minerals can be found in these geological features.

Small Occurrences - Veins: These are minor mineral deposits.

Large Occurrences - Lodes: These are substantial mineral deposits.

Formation Process: Often, minerals in liquid or gaseous forms rise through cavities towards the earth’s surface, cooling and solidifying along the way.

Key Metallic Minerals: 

Tin, copper, zinc, and lead are typically extracted from veins and lodes.

Mineral Occurrence in Sedimentary Rocks:

Bed and Layer Formation: Minerals in sedimentary rocks are often found in beds or layers.

Formation Process: They result from deposition, accumulation, and concentration in horizontal strata.

Concentration by Heat and Pressure: 

Coal and some types of iron ore are concentrated due to extended periods of heat and pressure.

Sedimentary Minerals from Evaporation: Gypsum, potash salt, and sodium salt belong to this group, forming primarily through evaporation, particularly in arid regions.

Formation by Surface Rock Decomposition:

Decomposition Process:

• When surface rocks decompose, and 
• soluble parts are washed away, 
• leaving behind residual mass of weathered material containing valuable ores.

Example: Bauxite Formation

Formation in Alluvial Deposits (Placer Deposits):

Occurrence in Valley Floors and Hills' Bases

Termed as "placer deposits."

Water-Resistant Minerals: Placer deposits usually contain minerals that are resistant to corrosion by water.

Key Minerals: gold, silver, tin, and platinum.

Minerals in Ocean Waters:

Abundance in Ocean Waters: While ocean waters contain numerous minerals, 

• Widely spread out to be economically valuable.

Key Ocean-Derived Minerals: Common salt, magnesium, and bromine 

Rich Ocean Beds: Ocean beds are also home to valuable manganese nodules.

Rat-Hole Mining.  Do you know that most of the minerals in India are nationalised and their extraction is possible only after obtaining due permission from the government? But in most of the tribal areas of the north-east India, minerals are owned by individuals or communities. In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member in the form of a long narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’ mining. The National Green Tribunal has declared such activities illegal and recommended that these should be stopped forthwith. Q 1: What is the term used to describe the type of coal mining carried out by family members in Jowai and Cherapunjee in Meghalaya? Q 2: In Meghalaya, what minerals are mentioned as having large deposits in the passage? Q 3: Why are most of the minerals in India only extractable with government permission, as mentioned in the passage? Q 4: According to the passage, what action has the National Green Tribunal recommended regarding the mining activities in Meghalaya?

India's Varied Mineral Resources:

1. Uneven Distribution:

   - Peninsular rocks: coal, metallic minerals, mica, and non-metallic minerals.

   - Sedimentary rocks in Gujarat and Assam contain most petroleum deposits.

   - Rajasthan, with peninsular rock systems, has non-ferrous minerals.

   - North India's alluvial plains lack economic minerals due to geological differences.

Why:

Due to differences in: 

• geological structure, 
• processes and 
• time involved in the formation of minerals

2. Major Minerals in India:

   - Mineral concentration, extraction ease, and proximity to markets affect economic viability.

   - Once Choices made based on demand convert a deposit into a mine.

Ferrous Minerals in India:

1. Significance:

   - Contribute to 3/4th of metallic mineral production value.

   - Important for the growth of metallurgical industries.

   - India both consumer and exporter of these minerals.

2. Iron Ore:

   - Foundation of industrial development in India.

   - Abundant, high-quality iron ore resources.

   - Magnetite ore contains up to 70% iron with excellent magnetic properties.

   - Hematite ore, though slightly lower in iron content (50-60%), is widely used.

   - Major iron ore production in 2018-19 from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Jharkhand, with other states contributing a minor portion.

Kudre in Kannada means horse.  The highest peak in the western ghats of Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.  The Bailadila hills look like the hump of an ox, and hence its name.

Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt

   - Location: Odisha (Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts) and Jharkhand (Singbhum district)

   - Ore Type: High-grade hematite ore

   - Notable Mines: Badampahar (Odisha), Gua, and Noamundi (Jharkhand)

2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt

   - Location: Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra

   - Ore Type: Very high-grade hematite ore

   - Notable Mines: Bailadila range of hills (Chhattisgarh)

   - Special Feature: 14 deposits of super high-grade hematite ore

Notable Export Destination:

- Japan and South Korea (via Vishakhapatnam port)

3. Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru Belt

   - Location: Karnataka

   - Ore Reserves: Large

   - Notable Mines: Kudremukh (Western Ghats of Karnataka)

   - Special Feature: 

• One of the largest iron ore deposits globally; 
• 100% export unit with slurry transportation to Mangaluru port.

4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt

   - Location: Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra

   - Ore Quality: Not very high, but efficiently exploited

   - Export Port: Marmagao port

Manganese 

Uses:

1. Steel Production:

   - Essential for steel manufacturing.

   - 10 kg of manganese needed for one tonne of steel.

2. Other Applications:

   - Found in bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints.

Non-Ferrous Minerals in India:

- Reserves and production are lacking.

- Copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold

- Essential for metallurgy, engineering, and electronics.

Copper in India:

- India deficient in copper reserves and production.

- Utilized in electrical cables, electronics, and chemicals.

- Key copper-producing areas: 

• Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh), 
• Khetri (Rajasthan), 
• Singhbhum (Jharkhand). 

Bauxite in India:

- Bauxite is the source of alumina (clay-like substance) and subsequently aluminum.

- It's formed from the decomposition of aluminum-rich silicates.

- Valuable due to its strength, lightness, conductivity, and malleability.

- Indian bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills, and Bilaspur-Katni plateau.

- Odisha led bauxite production in 2016-17, with key deposits in Koraput's Panchpatmali.

Note: Malleability is the quality of something that can be shaped into something else without breaking

Fact: After the discovery of aluminium Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and hooks on his clothes made of aluminium and served food to his more illustrious guests in aluminium utensils and the less honourable ones were served in gold and silver utensils. Thirty years after this incident aluminium bowls were most common with the beggars in Paris

Non-Metallic Minerals: Mica

- Mica consists of a series of plates or leaves.

It splits easily into thin sheets.

- It can be transparent or various colors.

- Valued for its: 

• di-electric strength, 
• low power loss factor
• insulating properties, and 
• resistance to high voltage,
• Most imp. for electronic industries.

- Mica sources:

Northern Chota Nagpur plateau, with Jharkhand's Koderma Gaya-Hazaribagh belt as a major producer.

- Rajasthan (around Ajmer) and Andhra Pradesh's Nellore mica belt are also significant mica sources.

Limestone

- Typically associated with calcium carbonate or calcium-magnesium carbonate rocks.

- Abundant in various sedimentary rock formations.

- Crucial for the cement industry and iron ore smelting in blast furnaces.

Hazards of Mining The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners. The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, and increase in stream and river pollution. 1. How does mining impact the health of miners, and what specific risks do they face, as mentioned in the passage? 2. What environmental consequences are associated with mining activities as described in the passage, and how do they affect water sources and land? 3. In what ways are miners vulnerable to health hazards, and what are the potential consequences of inhaling dust and noxious fumes in the mining industry? 4. What are the common threats faced by miners while working in coalmines, and how do these risks affect their safety and well-being?

Stricter safety regulations and implementation of environmental laws are essential to prevent mining from becoming a “killer industry”.

Conservations of Minerals:

1. Industry and agriculture rely heavily on minerals.

2. Only 1% of the Earth's crust holds workable mineral deposits.

3. Minerals take millions of years to form and concentrate.

4. Geological processes for mineral formation are slow, and replenishment rates are minimal.

5. Minerals are finite and non-renewable resources.

6. Continued extraction from greater depths reduces quality and increases costs.

7. Rich mineral deposits are valuable but short-lived national assets.

Sustainable Mineral Use:

- Required planned and sustainable use of mineral resources.

- Develop advanced technologies for cost-effective utilization of low-grade ores.

- Promote recycling, scrap metal use, and alternative materials to conserve minerals for the future.

Energy Resources:

- Energy is vital for cooking, lighting, transportation, and industry.

- Sources of energy include fuel minerals (coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium) and electricity.

- Energy resources categorized as: 

conventional (e.g., coal, petroleum, electricity) and non-conventional (e.g., solar, wind, geothermal).

- Rural India relies on firewood and cattle dung cake for more than 70% of its energy needs.

Challenges:

decreasing forest area.

Use dung cake as agri. Manure

Conventional Energy Source:

Coal:

Abundant in India, providing a significant part of the nation's energy.

- Used for power generation, industrial, and domestic purposes.

- Crucial for fulfilling commercial energy requirements in India.

Formation:

- Coal forms over millions of years through plant material compression.

Types of coal:

- Types of coal vary based on compression, depth, and burial time:

   - Peat: Low carbon, high moisture, low heating capacity (from decaying plants).

   - Lignite: Soft, high moisture, low grade brown coal (e.g., Reserves Neyveli in Tamil Nadu used for electricity).

   - Bituminous Coal: 

buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures

Most widely used for commercial purposes.

Metallurgical Coal: 

• high grade bituminous coal
• Valuable for iron smelting in blast furnaces.

   - Anthracite: Highest quality, hard coal.

Coal in India: 

- Two main geological ages: 

Gondwana (over 200 million years old) and 

Tertiary (about 55 million years old).

- Gondwana coal:

• primarily metallurgical, 
• found in Damodar Valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).

- Key coalfields: Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro.

- Other Gondwana coal deposits in Godavari, Mahanadi, Son, and Wardha valleys.

Tertiary coals:

- Tertiary coals in northeastern states like Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland.

- Remember coal is a bulky material, which loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. 

Hence, heavy industries and thermal power stations are located on or near the coalfields.

Petroleum in India

1. Energy Source: 

Energy source next to coal.

2. Usage:

   - Provides fuel for heating and lighting.

   - Acts as lubricants for machinery.

   - Raw material for various manufacturing industries.

Petroleum Refineries = “nodal industry”: 

• Supporting synthetic textile, fertilizer, and chemical industries in India.

3. Geological Occurrence:

   - Most petroleum in India is found in anticlines and fault traps in tertiary-age rock formations.

   - In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it is trapped in the crest of upfolds within porous limestone or sandstone layers.

5. Trapping Mechanism:

   - Non-porous layers prevent oil from rising or sinking, confining it in the porous rock layers.

   - Natural gas typically occurs above the oil due to its lighter nature.

6. Major Production Areas:

   - Mumbai High, Gujarat, and Assam.

   - Notable fields :

• Ankeleshwar in Gujarat and 
• oil fields in Assam like Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran-Hugrijan.

Note: Assam = being India's oldest oil-producing state

Natural Gas 

1. Found 

   - alongside petroleum deposits.

   - Released when crude oil is brought to the surface.

2. Usage:

   - Domestic and industrial fuel.

   - Fuel for Electricity generation, 

   - heating Purpose in industries.

   - Raw material in chemical, petrochemical, and fertilizer industries.

   - Transport and cooking fuel.

   - Emerging as a preferred fuel for transport (CNG) and cooking (PNG) at homes with expanding local city gas distribution (COD) networks,

3. Major Reserves:

   - Mumbai High and related fields on the west coast, supplemented by findings in the Cambay basin.

   - New gas reserves discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin on the East Coast.

4. Gas Infrastructure Development:

   - The Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross-country gas pipeline, spanning 1,700 km, linked Mumbai High and Bassein gas fields with various industrial complexes.

   - GAIL (India) constructed this pipeline, stimulating India's gas market development.

5. Expanding Gas Grid:

   - Pipelines increasing from 1,700 km to 18,500 km.

   - Future plans include extending the Gas Grid to over 34,000 km, connecting all gas sources and consuming markets across the country, including the North Eastern states.

Electricity

1. Important Energy Source:

   - vital role in modern life, and its per capita consumption is an index of development.

2. Two Main Generation Methods:

   - Hydroelectricity: Created by fast-flowing water, a renewable resource, driving hydro turbines.

Ex: Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, and the Kopili Hydel Project.

   - Thermal Power: Utilizes non-renewable fossil fuels for power generation, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas to turn turbines.

Once generated the electricity is exactly the same.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:

1. Fossil Fuel Dependency:

   - India's increasing energy consumption relies heavily on fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas.

2. Challenges and Uncertainties:

   - Rising prices and potential shortages of oil and gas raise concerns about future energy security, impacting the national economy.

   - Over Reliance on fossil fuels contributes to environmental problems.

3. Renewable Alternatives:

   - To address these challenges, India looks to non-conventional energy sources, including solar energy, wind power, tidal energy, biomass, and energy from waste materials.

4. Abundance of Resources:

   - India is rich in natural resources such as sunlight, water, wind, and biomass, 

Making it ideal for renewable energy development.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy

   - Harnessed by altering the structure of atoms, releasing heat used for electricity generation.

   - India utilizes Uranium and Thorium, available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan, for nuclear power.

   - The Monazite sands in Kerala are also rich in Thorium, contributing to India's nuclear energy resources.

Solar Energy:

1. Abundant Sunlight:

   - India's tropical climate offers significant opportunities for harnessing solar energy.

2. Photovoltaic Technology:

   - Photovoltaic technology directly converts sunlight into electricity.

3. Rural Adoption:

   - Solar energy is gaining popularity in rural and remote areas of India.

4. Solar Power Plants:

   - Large solar power plants are being established across India.

   - These plants reduce rural households' reliance on firewood and dung cakes, benefiting environmental conservation.

   - Additionally, it ensures an adequate supply of manure for agriculture.

Wind Power:

Potential: India has significant wind power potential.

Largest Cluster: Tamil Nadu houses the largest wind farm cluster, stretching from Nagarcoil to Madurai.

Other Key States: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Lakshadweep also host important wind farms.

Notable Regions: Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are renowned for their effective utilization of wind energy in India.

Biogas:

Sources: 

Shrubs, farm waste, animal, and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic use in rural areas.

Efficiency: 

Biogas, generated through organic matter decomposition, offers higher thermal efficiency compared to kerosene, dung cakes, and charcoal.

Plant Types: Biogas plants are established at municipal, cooperative, and individual levels. 

Note: Those utilizing cattle dung are referred to as 'Gobar gas plants' in rural India.

Benefits: Gobar gas plants offer dual advantages to farmers, providing both energy and improved manure quality. 

This approach is highly efficient, as it enhances manure quality and reduces the loss of trees and manure caused by burning fuel wood and cow dung cakes.

Tidal Energy:

Principle: Electricity is produced using oceanic tides.

  

Floodgate Dams: Dams are constructed across inlets. During high tide, water enters the inlet and is trapped when the gate closes.

Power Generation: After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.

Tidal Energy Locations in India:

The Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat, and the Gangetic delta in the Sunderban regions of West Bengal.

Geothermal Energy:

Source of Heat: 

• Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the Earth's interior heat.

Increasing Heat with Depth: 

• The Earth gets hotter as you go deeper. 
• In regions with a high geothermal gradient, high temperatures are found at shallow depths.

Hot Groundwater: 

Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from rocks, becoming hot. When it reaches the Earth's surface, it turns into steam.

Electricity Generation: 

This steam is used to power turbines, producing electricity.

Geothermal Energy in India:

Hot Springs Potential: 

India homes several hundred hot springs suitable for electricity generation.

Experimental Projects: 

India has initiated two experimental geothermal energy projects. 

One - Parvati Valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh, 

another - the Puga Valley in Ladakh.

Conservation of Energy Resources:

Energy's Vital Role: 

Energy is essential for economic development in all sectors: agriculture, industry, transport, commerce, and homes.

Rising Energy Demand:

Over time, energy consumption has consistently increased in India due to the demands of economic development.

Sustainable Path: There's an urgent need for a sustainable energy path. 

• Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable energy.

Energy Efficiency Challenge: 

India is currently one of the world's least energy-efficient countries. 

Careful use of limited energy resources is crucial.

Individual Contribution: 

Citizens can contribute by using: 

• public transport, 
• turning off unused electricity, 
• utilizing energy-efficient devices, and 
• adopting non-conventional energy sources. 

Remember, "energy saved is energy produced."