PRINT CULTURE CLASS 10
World Before Print:
- Imagine a world without printed matter.
- No books, newspapers, or everyday prints existed.
- Printed materials are everywhere in our lives.
Print's Pervasive Influence:
- Found in books, paintings, theatre programs, official circulars, calendars, diaries, ads, and cinema posters.
- We read, see images, follow news, and engage in public debates through print.
Taking Print for Granted:
- We often forget there was a time before print.
- Print has a history that shaped our modern world.
Uncovering Print's History:
- When did printed literature begin?
- How did it contribute to creating the modern world?
Exploring Print's Development:
- Examining print's evolution from East Asia to Europe and India.
- Understanding the impact of technology on print's expansion.
Social and Cultural Shifts:
- Analyzing how print changed social lives and cultures.
- Considering the transformative effects of print on our contemporary world.
The First Printed Books:
Origins of Print Technology (Hand Printing):
- Earliest print technology developed in China, Japan, and Korea.
- AD 594 marked the beginning of hand printing using paper and woodblocks.
Chinese Printing Techniques:
- Books in China were printed by rubbing paper against inked woodblocks.
- As both sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed, the traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side.
- Superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate, with remarkable accuracy, the beauty of calligraphy.
Imperial State's Role:
- China's imperial state was a major producer of printed material.
- Textbooks for civil service exams were printed extensively by the imperial state.
- The sixteenth century saw an increase in examination candidates, boosting print volume.
Diversification of Print Usage:
- In the 17th C Urban culture flourishing in China led to diverse uses of print.
- Seventeenth-century China saw print used beyond scholar-officials.
- Merchants utilized print for trade information, and reading became a leisure activity.
Changing Readership:
- New readers preferred:
- fictional narratives,
- poetry,
- autobiographies, and
- romantic plays.
- Rich women, wives of scholar-officials, and courtesans began reading and publishing their works.
Introduction of Western Printing:
- Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported in the late nineteenth century as Western powers established their outposts in China.
- Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture, catering to the Western-style schools.
- From hand printing there was now a gradual shift to mechanical printing.
1.1 Print in Japan
Introduction of Printing to Japan:
- Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology to Japan around AD 768-770.
- Oldest Japanese book, the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, printed in AD 868, featured text and woodcut illustrations.
Diverse Printing Practices:
- Pictures printed on textiles, playing cards, and paper money.
- In medieval Japan, poets and prose writers regularly published, and books were affordable and abundant.
Visual Material's Impact:
- In the late eighteenth century led to unique publishing practices.
- Flourishing urban circles in Edo (later Tokyo) showcased illustrated collections depicting an elegant urban culture.
Abundance in Libraries and Bookstores:
- Libraries and bookstores in Edo were packed with hand-printed material.
- Topics ranged from women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, etiquette, cooking, to famous places.
Print Comes to Europe:
Silk Route Influence:
- Silk and spices flowed from China to Europe through the Silk Route for centuries.
- In the eleventh century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the same route, enabling manuscript production (carefully written by scribes).
Marco Polo's Contribution:
- In 1295, great explorer Marco Polo returned to Italy, bringing knowledge of Chinese woodblock printing.
- Now Italians have adopted this technology for book production, spread to other parts of Europe.
Shift in Book Production:
- Luxury editions on expensive vellum (A parchment made from the skin of animals) remained handwritten for aristocratic circles.
- Merchants and students favored cheaper printed copies, leading to increased demand.
Emergence of Bookselling:
- Booksellers in Europe exported books to various countries, organizing book fairs.
- Handwritten manuscripts production transformed, now Scribes or skilled handwriters were no longer solely employed by wealthy or influential patrons but increasingly by booksellers as well.
Ex: More than 50 scribes often worked for one bookseller.
Limitations of Manuscripts:
- Not satisfy the ever-increasing demand for books.
- Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business.
- Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle, and could not be carried around or read easily.
- Their circulation = remained limited.
- Woodblock printing gained popularity in the fifteenth century in Europe to print:
- textiles,
- playing cards, and
- religious pictures with simple, brief texts.
Johann Gutenberg's Invention:
- Breakthrough in print technology occurred in the 1430s in Strasbourg, Germany.
- Johann Gutenberg developed the first-known printing press, addressing the need for quicker and cheaper text reproduction.
2.1 Gutenberg and the Printing Press:
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Notice the long handle attached to the screw. This handle was used to turn the screw and press down the platen over the printing block that was placed on top of a sheet of damp paper. Gutenberg developed metal types for each of the 26 characters of the Roman alphabet and devised a way of moving them around so as to compose different words of the text. This came to be known as the moveable type printing machine, and it remained the basic print technology over the next 300 years. Books could now be produced much faster than was possible when each print block was prepared by carving a piece of wood by hand. The Gutenberg press could print 250 sheets on one side per hour. Platen : In letterpress printing, platen is a board which is pressed onto the back of the paper to get the impression from the type. At one time it used to be a wooden board; later it was made of steel |
Gutenberg's Background and Expertise:
- Son of a merchant, Gutenberg grew up around wine and olive presses.
- Acquired skills in polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and learned to create lead moulds for trinkets (a piece of jewellery or small object for decoration).
Innovation and Adaptation:
- Drawing on his diverse knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology for his innovation.
- The olive press served as the model for the printing press, and lead moulds were used for metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
Perfection of Printing System:
- By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the printing system, printing the first Bible.
- Approximately 180 copies were produced in three years, considered fast production for the time.
Evolution of Printed Books:
- Initially, printed books resembled handwritten manuscripts in appearance and layout.
- Metal letters imitated ornamental styles, with hand-illuminated borders and painted illustrations.
Proliferation of Printing Presses:
- In hundred years Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were established across Europe.
- Printers from Germany travelled to other countries, seeking work and helping start new presses.
- As the number of printing presses grew, book production boomed.
Print Revolution:
- The shift from hand printing to mechanical printing marked the print revolution.
- In second half of the 15th century, 20 million printed books flooded markets;
- In the 16th century, this number rose to about 200 million copies.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
1. Print Revolution Overview:
- Transformation beyond book production.
- Altered lives, information dynamics, and relationships.
2. Impact on People:
- Shift in the way individuals interacted with knowledge.
- Changing dynamics with institutions and authorities.
3. Influence on Perceptions:
- Shaped popular perspectives.
- Introduced novel ways of viewing the world.
3.1 A New Reading Public
1. Printing Press Impact:
- A new reading public emerged.
- Printing reduced the cost of books.
- The time and labour required to produce each book came down
- Multiple copies could be produced with greater ease.
- Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever-growing readership.
2. New Culture of Reading:
- Earlier, reading was reserved for elites,
- while common people used oral culture.
- Ex: Sacred texts, ballads, and folk tales were conveyed orally; knowledge was shared orally.
3. Challenges Before the Age of Print:
- Books were expensive and limited in production before the print era.
- A reading public emerged with print, but the transition wasn't simple due to low literacy rates in most European countries - till the twentieth century - although they enjoy listening to books being read out.
4. Innovations to Attract Non-readers:
Publishers faced the challenge of:
- low literacy rates and
- to attract common people to printed works.
- Printers adapted by creating - books llustrated with pictures.
- Popular ballads and folk tales were published, appealing to both readers and non-readers.
These printed works were shared through recitations and performances in gatherings, making literature accessible beyond reading.
5. Oral Culture in Print:
- Oral traditions transformed to print.
- Printed material was shared orally.
- Distinction between oral and reading cultures became blurred.
- And the hearing public and reading public became intermingled.
3.2 Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
Print Revolution and Debate:
- Enabled widespread circulation of ideas and fueled debates.
- Empowered dissenters to print and share contrasting views.
Concerns and Criticism:
- Not universally welcomed; fears about uncontrolled dissemination.
- Apprehensions included potential for rebellious and irreligious thoughts.
Religious Implications in Early Modern Europe:
- **Martin Luther's Challenge:**
- 1517: Luther's Ninety-Five Theses criticized Roman Catholic Church practices.
- Posted on a church door in Wittenberg, inviting debate.
Print's Role in Protestant Reformation:
- Luther's writings widely reproduced and read, leading to Church division.
- Luther acknowledged print as a divine gift, crediting it for spreading new ideas.
Intellectual Impact:
- Scholars argue print created a new intellectual atmosphere.
- Facilitated the spread of ideas, contributing to the intellectual shifts of the Reformation.
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Protestant Reformation : A sixteenth-century movement to reform the Catholic Church dominated by Rome. Martin Luther was one of the main Protestant reformers. Several traditions of anti-Catholic Christianity developed out of the movement. Inquisition A former Roman Catholic court for identifying and punishing heretics Heretical – Beliefs which do not follow the accepted teachings of the Church. In medieval times, heresy was seen as a threat to the right of the Church to decide on what should be believed and what should not. Heretical beliefs were severely punished Satiety: The state of being fulfilled much beyond the point of satisfaction Seditious Action, speech or writing that is seen as opposing the government. |
3.3 Print and Dissent
Print's Influence on Faith Interpretation:
- Enabled diverse interpretations of faith, even among the less educated.
- Little-educated individuals, like Menocchio, engaged with available books.
Menocchio's Unique Perspective:
- A sixteenth-century Italian miller.
- Reading led him to reinterpret the Bible, forming views that clashed with the Roman Catholic Church.
Repression of Unorthodox Views:
- Roman Church, troubled by dissenting views, initiated inquisitions.
- Menocchio faced persecution, appearing twice before the Church and ultimately being executed.
Church Response:
- To curb unapproved ideas, the Roman Church imposed strict controls on publishers and booksellers.
- Instituted an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558 to restrict the circulation of certain literature.
The Reading Mania
Rise of Literacy and Schools:
- In the 17th and 18th centuries, literacy rates increased across Europe.
- Churches established schools in villages, carrying literacy amongst peasants and artisans.
Reading Mania and Book Production:
- By the late 18th century, some parts of Europe achieved literacy rates of 60-80%.
- Growing literacy led to a surge in demand for books, motivating printers to produce more.
Diverse Forms of Popular Literature:
- New genres emerged, targeting broader audiences.
- Pedlars circulated almanacs (Ritual calendar) ballads, and folktales, while penny chapbooks (for poor) and 'Biliotheque Bleue - low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and bound in cheap blue covers.
Romances, printed on four to six pages, and the more substantial ‘histories’ which were stories about the past.
Periodical Press and Information/Entertainment Blend:
- Early 18th century saw the development of the periodical press.
- Newspapers and journals combined current affairs with entertainment, covering wars, trade, and global developments.
Scientific and Philosophical Accessibility:
- Scientific and philosophical ideas became more accessible.
- Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed.
- Works by scientists like Isaac Newton and thinkers like Thomas Paine, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau - their ideas reached a broader readership, influencing popular literature.
4.1 ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Mid-18th Century Conviction:
- Books seen as agents of progress and enlightenment.
- Common belief - Books change the world.
Changing the World through Books:
- Liberate society from despotism and tyranny, and
- herald a time when reason and intellect would rule.
Louise-Sebastien Mercier's Perspective:
- An 18th-century French novelist declared: ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.’
The Power of Print in Mercier's Novels:
- Mercier’s novels, the heroes are transformed by acts of reading.
- Books portrayed as catalysts for enlightenment in his novels.
Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world! Tremble before the virtual writer!
Despotism: A system of governance in which absolute power is exercised by an individual, unregulated by legal and constitutional checks |
4.2 Print Culture and the French Revolution
Three types of arguments
First: Enlightenment Ideas Popularized:
- Print disseminated Enlightenment thinkers' ideas challenging:
- tradition
- Superstition and
- Despotism.
- Attacked the sacred authority of the Church and the despotic power of the state
Result: eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition.
Voltaire and Rousseau's writings are widely read, offering critical perspectives and promoting reason and rationality over tradition.
Emergence of a Public Debate Culture:
- Print created a culture of dialogue and debate, encouraging
re-evaluation of all values, norms and institutions.
- Public became aware of the power of reason,
- recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs.
Result: new ideas of social revolution came into being.
Third: Satirical Literature Against Monarchy:
- Literature in the 1780s mocked royalty and criticized morality and their existing social order.
- Cartoons and caricatures portrayed:
- Suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense hardships.
Analyzing the Arguments:
- Print facilitated the spread of diverse ideas, including both:
- Revolutionary (Voltaire and Rousseau) and
- Propagandist literature (monarchical and Church propaganda).
- People engaged with a variety of sources, interpreting and accepting/rejecting ideas based on personal perspectives.
- While print didn't directly shape minds, it opened possibilities for diverse thinking during the French Revolution.
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Discuss:
Why do some historians think that print culture created the basis for the French Revolution? |
The Nineteenth Century
- Mass literacy in Europe = large numbers of new readers = children, women and workers.
5.1 Children, Women and Workers
Emergence of Children as Readers:
- Late 19th-century compulsory education boosted children as readers.
- School textbook production became vital for the publishing industry.
- In 1857, a dedicated children's press was established in France and published: old fairy tales and folktales.
Grimm Brothers (Germany) compiled traditional folk tales from peasants in 1812.
- Edited versions excluded content unsuitable for children or considered vulgar to the elites.
Result = Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In this way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
Women's Impact in Reading and Writing:
- Women gained significance as readers and writers.
- Penny magazines (Ssome Dedicated to women’s) and manuals teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping.
- 19th-century key women novelists - like Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot. - Defining new type of woman:
- a person with will,
- strength of personality,
- determination and the power to think.
Lending Libraries:
- Established since the seventeenth century.
- Evolved over time.
- In England, they served as educational tools.
- Targeted white-collar workers, artisans, and the lower-middle class.
Rise of Self-Education:
- Working-class individuals engaged in self-education and they wrote for themselves..
- After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self-improvement and self-expression.
- Workers wrote political tracts and autobiographies.
- Increased literary expression due to more leisure time.
5.2 Further Innovations
Evolution of Printing Technology:
- Late 18th century: Transition to metal press.
- 19th century: Ongoing series of innovations in printing technology.
Powerful Cylindrical Press:
- Mid-19th century: Richard M. Hoe's New York had perfected
power-driven press—8,000 sheets per hour.
- Particularly beneficial for newspaper printing.
Offset Press and Color Printing:
- Late 19th century: Introduction of offset press (up to six colors at a time).
- Early 20th century: Electrically operated presses for faster printing.
Mechanical Improvements:
- Ongoing developments like:
- improved paper feeding,
- better plate quality, and
- automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
Transformation of Printed Texts:
- Accumulation of mechanical improvements transformed the appearance of printed texts.
Innovations in Selling Printed Material:
- 19th-century periodicals serialized novels.
Ex:
1920s: Shilling Series for popular works (sold in cheap series).
20th-century: Introduction of dust covers/book jackets.
Response to 1930s Great Depression:
- Publishers introduced cheap paperback editions to maintain book purchases.
6. India and the World of Print
Let us see when printing began in India and how ideas and information were written before the age of print.
6.1 Manuscripts Before the Age of Print
Diverse Manuscript Tradition:
- Rich tradition in handwritten manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and vernacular languages.
- Manuscripts crafted on palm leaves or handmade paper, often featuring intricate illustrations.
Preservation Methods:
- By being pressed between wooden covers or sewn together.
- Production continued till into the late nineteenth century, even with the advent of printing.
Challenges of Manuscripts:
- Highly expensive and fragile,
- Requiring careful handling.
- Written in Different script styles, making reading challenging, limiting their everyday use.
Limited Use in Education:
- Despite a network of primary schools, pre-colonial Bengal students focused on writing, not reading.
- Teachers, from memory, dictated texts,
- Resulting in literacy without actual reading experiences.
6.2 Print Comes to India
Introduction of Printing in Goa:
- Portuguese missionaries brought the printing press to Goa in the mid-sixteenth century.
- Jesuit priests printed Konkani tracts, with around 50 books in Konkani and Kanara languages by 1674.
Missionary Printing in South India:
- Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin.
- By 1713, they also printed the first Malayalam book,
- While Dutch Protestant missionaries printed 32 Tamil texts by 1710 - many of them translations of older works..
Late Growth of English Language Press:
- English East India Company imported presses in the late seventeenth century, but English press growth was delayed.
Private Enterprise and Bengal Gazette:
- In 1780, James Augustus Hickey initiated the Bengal Gazette (a weekly magazine - ‘a commercial paper open to all, but influenced by none’) an independent English publication.
- Hickey faced persecution by Governor-General Warren Hastings for publishing slave and import related ads and gossip about Company senior officials in India.
Official Response and Indian Publications:
- Enraged by this, Governor-General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey,
- Hastings encouraged officially sanctioned newspapers to counter negative information (detrimental to Colonial Government).
- By the late eighteenth century, various newspapers and journals, including Indian ones, the first to appear in the weekly Bengal Gazette (by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Rammohun Roy), emerged.
7. Religious Reform and Public Debates
Religious Debates in the 19th Century:
- Intense debates on religious issues originated in the early 19th century in response to colonial changes.
- Various groups presented:
- Diverse interpretations of religious beliefs,
- Some criticised existing practices and
- campaigned for reform,
- while others countered the arguments of reformers.
Printed Media Shaping Debates:
- These debates were carried out in public and in print.
- Printed tracts and newspapers played a crucial role in spreading and shaped the nature of the debate.
- Public discussions became more inclusive as a wider audience could participate and express their views.
- New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
Controversies in Bengal:
- Intense controversies in Bengal involved debates on:
- widow immolation,
- monotheism,
- Brahmanical priesthood, and
- Idolatry
In Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated, circulating a variety of arguments.
Multilingual Publications:
- To reach wider audiences, ideas were printed in the everyday language of ordinary people.
- Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
- From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.
- In the same year, a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance.
Muslim Responses and Debates:
North Indian Ulama's (Ulama - Legal scholars of Islam and the sharia ( a body of Islamic law) Concerns:
- Fears of Muslim dynasties collapsing under colonial rule.
- Challenges like:
- encourage conversion,
- change the Muslim personal laws.
Response Strategies:
To counter this:
- They used Cheap/affordable lithographic presses.
- Published Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures.
- Printed religious newspapers and tracts.
Role of Deoband Seminary (1867):
- Published thousands upon thousands of fatwas (A legal pronouncement on Islamic law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to clarify issues on which the law is uncertain) guiding Muslims:
- In their everyday lives.
- Clarified meanings of Islamic doctrines through publications.
Diverse Muslim Sects and Seminaries:
- Emergence in the 19th century.
- Each offered a unique interpretation of faith.
- Strived to expand their followers and counter opponents.
- Urdu print helped them conduct these battles in public.
Hindu Influence of Print:
- Print encouraged the reading of Hindu religious texts in vernacular languages.
- The first printed edition of Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out from Calcutta in 1810 and
- By the mid-nineteenth century cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets.
Religious Texts in Vernaculars:
- Naval Kishore Press (Lucknow) and Shri Venkateshwar (Bombay) Press published numerous religious texts in vernaculars language from the 1880s.
- Portable printed editions facilitated easy access, catering to both literate and could also be read out to large groups of illiterate men and women.
Conclusion:
Religious texts, therefore:
- reached a very wide circle of people,
- encouraging discussions,
- debates and controversies within and among different religions.
- Also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
- Newspapers conveyed news from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.
8. New Forms of Publication
Printing and the Novel:
- Printing created a demand for new writing.
- New Readers wanted stories reflecting their lives,experience emotions, and relationships.
- The novel (a literary firm), originating in Europe (catered to this need) adapted to Indian forms.
Diverse Literary Forms:
- New literary forms emerged”lyrics, short stories, and essays about social and political matters.
- These new forms Emphasises on human lives and intimate feelings, about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
Rise of New Visual Culture:
- Printing presses increased, enabling easy reproduction of visual images.
- Artists like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass circulation.
- Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops.
- Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor to decorate the walls of their homes or places of work.
- These prints shaped ideas on modernity, tradition, religion, politics, society, and culture.
Caricatures and Cartoons:
- Caricatures and cartoons in the 1870s commented on social and political issues.
- Some mocked Educated Indians adopting Western tastes and clothes, while others feared social change.
- Imperial caricatures ridiculed nationalists, and nationalist cartoons criticized imperial rule.
8.1 Women and Print
Increased Women's Education:
- Vivid and intense portrayals of women's lives led to a surge in women's reading.
- Liberal husbands and fathers educated women at home and sent them to schools when women’s schools were set up in the cities and towns after the mid-nineteenth century.
Media Influence:
- Journals played a crucial role, advocating women's education and also carried a syllabus and provided suitable reading matter for home-based schooling.
Challenges and Resistance:
- Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and
- Conservative Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
- Despite obstacles, rebellious women like Rashsundari Debi (wrote her autobiography Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language.) in Bengal and others clandestinely (secret way) pursued education.
We know the story of a girl in a conservative Muslim family of north India who secretly learnt to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own. In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
Autobiographical Narratives:
- Social reforms and novels created great interest in women's lives and emotions, encouraging few women in 1860s like Kailashbashini Debi (Bengal) - highlighting the experiences of women – about:
- how women were imprisoned at home,
- kept in ignorance,
- forced to do hard domestic labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
In 1880s Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with:
- Passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows.
- In Tamil literature, a woman expressed the significance of reading - ‘For various reasons, my world is small ... More than half my life’s happiness has come from books ...’
Development of Print Culture in Indian Languages:
Early Development: Urdu, Tamil, Bengali, and Marathi had early print culture, but Hindi printing gained momentum in the 1870s.
Focus on Women's Education: A significant portion of Hindi print was dedicated to educating women, with a surge in the early 20th century.
Rise of Women's Journals: Women-centric journals, addressing topics like education, widowhood, remarriage, and national movement, gained popularity.
Regional Dynamics:
Punjab's Folk Literature: In Punjab, folk literature emerged in the early 20th century to teach women how to be obedient wives."
Ram Chaddha-Istri Dharm Vichar
Khalsa Tract Society: Cheap books
Battala in Bengal: Central Calcutta's Battala area became a hub for printing popular books, including religious tracts, scriptures, and scandalous and obscene literature.
- Illustration Trend: By the late 19th century, books from Battala were richly illustrated, using woodcuts and colored lithographs.
- Pedlars' Role: Pedlars distributed these publications, allowing women to access and read them in their leisure time.
8.2 Print and the Poor People
Nineteenth-Century Book Market:
- Very cheap small books sold in Madras towns at crossroads for poor market-goers.
Rise of Public Libraries (Early 20th Century):
- Public libraries established from the early 20th century, mainly in cities, towns, and prosperous villages.
- Setting up libraries became a prestige move for rich patrons.
Caste Issues in Print:
- Late 19th century saw the emergence of tracts and essays addressing caste discrimination.
- Jyotiba Phule
- The Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871).
In the twentieth century,
- later B.R. Ambedkar (Maharashtra) and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Madras) wrote powerfully on caste injustices.
Local Protest Movements and Journals:
- Local protest movements spawned journals criticizing ancient scriptures and envisioning a just future.
Worker's Voice in Print:
- Despite factory workers being overworked, Kashibaba (Kanpur millworker) wrote 'Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal' in 1938 linking caste and class exploitation.
- Sudarshan Chakr (Kanpur millworker) wrote poems (1935-1955) published as 'Sacchi Kavitayan.'
Factory Workers' Libraries (1930s):
- Bangalore cotton mill workers set up libraries in the 1930s, inspired by Bombay workers.
- Social reformers sponsored these libraries to promote literacy, restrict drinking, and propagate nationalism.
9. Print and Censorship
Early Colonial Press (Before 1798):
- East India Company showed little concern for censorship pre-1798.
- Early measures only targeted English critics of Company misrule and hated the actions of particular Company officers, fearing impact on trade monopoly.
Press Control in the 1820s:
- Calcutta Supreme Court imposed regulations in the 1820s aimed at press control.
- Company promoted newspapers that celebrating British rule.
Governor-General Bentinck-
- In 1835, Governor-General Bentinck revised press laws due to urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers.
Some time later Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms.
Post-1857 Revolt:
- Post-1857 revolt, English demand clampdown on 'native' press.
- Vernacular newspapers infusing nationalist elements in Indians -due to which the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control.
ex:
Vernacular Press Act (1878):
- Inspired by Irish Press Laws,
Provisions:
- It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
- From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
- When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
Nationalist Growth Despite Repression:
- Despite repression, nationalist newspapers expanded, reporting on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities.
- Repressive measures sparked militant protests, creating a new cycle of persecution and protests.
Tilak's Kesari and 1908 Imprisonment:
- Balgangadhar Tilak's sympathetic writings about Punjab revolutionaries (deported in 1907) in Kesari led to his imprisonment in 1908.
- Tilak's imprisonment triggered widespread protests across India.
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