SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND RUSSIAN REVOLUTION CLASS 9 (NCERT) NOTES

 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

The Age of Social Change

French Revolution bring Ideas of: 

• Freedom and 
• Equality in Europe 

Possibility of creating dramatic change in society.

Before the eighteenth century society: 

• Divided into estates and orders 
• Aristocracy and church - 
• controlled economic and social power. 

After FR:

Change witnessed in Europe and Asia,  

Q: Name any two Indian nationalists who talked of the significance of the French Revolution.

Example:

In India, 

• Raja Rammohan Roy and 
• Derozio 

talked of the significance of the French Revolution, and 

1.1 Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives

Liberals: 

1. Nation which tolerated all religions. 

Reason:

European states discriminate against one religion over another.

Ex: 

• Britain favoured the Church of England, 
• Austria and Spain favoured the Catholic Church

2. Opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. 

Safeguard Individual Rights: 

• They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments. 

A representative, elected parliamentary government; 

• Subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. 

3. However, they were not considered as ‘democrats’.?

• Not believe in universal adult franchise, 
• Only men of property should have the vote. 
• No voting rights for women.

Radicals wanted Nation: 

• where the government was based on the majority of a country’s population. 

• Many supported women’s suffragette movements. 

• They opposed the privileges of: 
• Great landowners and 
• wealthy factory owners. 

• They were not against the existence of private property 
• But disliked concentration of property in the hands of a few.

Conservatives: 

1. Opposed to radicals and liberals. 

2. From Resist change to accept change:

Earlier in eighteenth century: 

• They opposed to the idea of change

After the French Revolution, 

• They opened their minds to the need for change. 

In the nineteenth century, they accepted change 

• But believed that the past had to be respected and 
• Change brought through a slow process.

1.2 Industrial Society and Social Change

1. It was a time of social and economic changes. 

• New cities came up and 
• New industrialised regions developed, 
• Railways expanded and 
• The Industrial Revolution occurred.

2. Changes due to Industrial Revolution:

• It brought men, women and children to factories. 
• Long Working hours 
• poor wages
• Unemployment 
• during low demand for industrial goods
• Housing and sanitation were problems
• since towns were growing rapidly

3. Liberals and radicals 

• searched for solutions to these issues.

Challenges:

• All industries come under Private property. 
• Liberals and radicals were: 
• property owners and 
• employers. 

Made their wealth through: 

• Trade or 
• Industrial ventures

They felt that such effort should be encouraged 

Believed that benefits only achieved

• if workers were healthy and 
• citizens were educated. 

They Opposed: 

• privileges of old aristocracy based on birth, 
• Believed in the value of: 
• Individual effort, 
• Labour and 
• Enterprise. 

They believed societies would develop

• Individual freedom was ensured, 
• If the poor could labour, and 
• Those with capital could operate without restraint, 

Supporter of liberal and radical groups

• Working men and women 
• who wanted changes 
• In the early nineteenth century.

Revolutions to end governments established in Europe in 1815

• Some nationalists, 
• Liberals and 
• Radicals 

They became Revolutionaries:

• In France, Italy, Germany and Russia, 
• To overthrow existing monarchs. 

Nationalists wanted to create ‘nations’ 

• where all citizens would have equal rights. 

Example: 

After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini

• An Italian nationalist, 
• conspired with others to achieve this in Italy. 
• Nationalists elsewhere – including India – read his writings.

Q: What was the basic idea of socialism? Q: What was the basic idea of a communist society? Q: Who was Karl Marx? Q: What was the Second International?

1.3 The Coming of Socialism to Europe

1. Introduction to Socialism:

• Mid-19th century Europe.
• Attracted widespread attention

2. Against Private Property:

• Private Property as a source of social issues.
• Property owners: 
• Focused on personal gain (employment)
• Neglecting the welfare of workers (Made property Productive)

3. Collective Control for Social Welfare:

• Proposed collective ownership of property.
• Believed society's interests would be prioritized over individual gains.
• Campaign for Change

How could a society without property operate? What would be the basis of socialist society?

Socialists vision;

4. Robert Owen's (1771-1858) Cooperative Idea:

• A leading English manufacturer,
• Sought to build cooperative communities.
• Example: New Harmony in Indiana, USA.

Benefit: People work together, share resources.

Other Socialist on Cooperatives:

Challenges:

• Need for government support cooperatives.
• Individual initiatives are not enough.

Louis Blanc's Cooperative Government and Marx's Communism 

1. French, Louis Blanc's Idea (1813-1882):

• Wanted the government to support cooperatives.
• To Replace capitalist businesses.

2. Cooperative Concept:

• Cooperatives: Groups producing goods together.
• Profits shared based on work by members.

3. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895):

• Marx: Industrial society is labeled 'capitalist'.
• Capitalists (investments) owned factories, 
• workers made profits (Capitalists).

Results:

Workers' Plight:

• Workers couldn't improve while private capitalists kept accumulating this profit.

Solution:

Needed to overthrow:

• Capitalism, 
• Private property.

Marx communist society:

• To free themselves from capitalist
• Marx proposed radical socialist society.
• Where all property is under social control.

Utility of communist society (CS):

• Workers would overcome capitalists.
• CS became the natural society of the future.

1.4 Support for Socialism

1. Socialist Ideas' Spread by 1870s:

• In Europe 

2. Formation of Second International:

• To unite all socialist globally.

3. Worker Associations' Rise:

In England and Germany 

Demands for: 

• Better working and 
• Descent living conditions
• Create Funds for members in distress, 
• reduced work hours, 
• Demanding voting rights.

Contributions:

In Germany, these groups joined the: 

• Social Democratic Party (SPD) and 
• Helped in winning parliamentary seats

By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed: 

• Britain Labour Party and 
• France's Socialist Party. 

Yet, failed to form socialist government in Europe until 1914.

In parliamentary politics:

Socialists Represented by strong figures 

• Their ideas did shape legislation, 

But governments continued to be run by: 

• conservatives, 
• liberals and 
• radicals.

The Russian Revolution

2.1 The Russian Empire in 1914

Russia Under Tsar Nicholas II (1914)

Territorial Extent: 

Modern-day: apart from Moscow

• Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus.

Vast Empire:

Stretching from the Pacific to Central Asia:

Also includes Today's: 

Central Asian states, 

• Georgia, 
• Armenia, and 
• Azerbaijan.

Religious Diversity:

Main Religion: Russian Orthodox Christianity 

Also include: 

• Catholics, 
• Protestants, 
• Muslims, and 
• Buddhists.

2.2 Russian Empire Economy and Society: 

In Early twentieth century:

• Russia’s people were mostly agriculturists. 
• About 85 percent.

Higher % in most European countries. 

• Ex: In France and Germany - between 40% and 50%.

In the Russian empire:

Cultivators produced — market + own needs 

• Russia was a major exporter of grain.

Industries:

• Only found in pockets. 

Ex: Prominent industrial areas were St Petersburg and Moscow. 

Craftsmen and factories operated together.

Factories expansion in 1890s:  Due to railways and foreign investment in industries.

• Coal  production doubled, 
• iron and steel quadrupled.

By the 1900s, factory workers matched craftsmen in numbers.

Types of Industries:

Mostly privately owned.

Government supervised large factories to: 

• Ensure minimum wages and 
• Limited hours of work. 

But factory inspectors could not prevent rules being broken. 

Example:

In craft units and small workshops, 

• working day - 15 hours, 
• In Factories: 10 or 12 hours in factories. 

Accommodation varied from rooms to dormitories.

Division of labor 

Workers are divided amongst social group: 

• Some links with the villages.
• Others settled in cities permanently. 

Workers were divided by skill. 

• St. Petersburg ‘Metalworkers 
• Considered aristocrats among other workers.

Note: their occupations demanded more training and skill 

Division amongst Men and Women:

By 1914 - Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour. 

• But they were paid less than men 

**(between half and three-quarters of a man’s wage). 

Labour Divisions - in dress and manner too. 

Workers formed (few in number) associations to aid members during:

• Unemployment or 
• Financial struggles.

Ex: 

• Textile industry strikes during 1896-1897. 
• Metal industry strikes during 1902.

Division amongst Peasants:

Countryside Life in Russia:

1. Land Cultivation:

• Peasants cultivated most of the land.
• Nobility, Crown, and Church owned large properties.

2. Division amongst Peasants:

Deeply religious 

• but lacked respect for nobility.

3. Nobles' Power:

• Gained through serving the Tsar.
• Not through local popularity. 

4. Comparison Between European and Russian peasants: 

In France - nobles were respected by peasants.

In Russia:

Peasant Demands:

• Wanted nobles' land.
• Refused to pay rent, sometimes killed landlords.

Ex: 

• In South Russia: 1902 and 
• All over Russia 1905.

Russian peasants different from other European peasants

Unique Communal System:

• Pooled their land (periodically) and
• Their commune (mir) 

Divided it according to the needs of individual families.

Q: When was the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party founded, and by whom?

2.3 Socialism in Russia

Before 1914, Political Parties in Russia:

• Illegal Status: All political parties were illegal in Russia.

   

The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party:

• Foundation: Founded in 1898 by socialist supporters of Marx.

• Illegal Operation: Operated illegally due to government policy.

• Activities: Established a newspaper, mobilized workers, and organized strikes.

The Peasant Perspective:

Peasant Influence: 

Some believed Russian peasants, not workers, were natural socialists.

Why? (Peasant custom of dividing land periodically)

Revolutionary Force: Peasants seen as the primary force for a quicker socialist revolution.

• So Russia quickly transformed into Socialist Country

   

Socialist Activity in the Late 19th Century:

Countryside Engagement: 

• Socialists were active in rural areas during the late 19th century.

Formation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party:

Establishment in 1900: 

• They formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900.

Peasants' Rights and Land Demand:

Advocacy: This party fought for peasants' rights and demanded: 

• Land redistribution from nobles to peasants.

Social Democrats' Disagreement:

Peasant Perspective: Social Democrats, like Lenin, disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries regarding peasants.

Peasant Differentiation: Lenin believed peasants were diverse, with varying economic roles (poor, rich, laborers, capitalists).

Q: What was Bolsheviks? Q: What was Mensheviks? Q:

Party Division on Organization Strategy:

Lenin's View (Bolsheviks): 

Lenin (Bolshevik leader) advocated: 

• Disciplined, 
• Controlled party membership in repressive Tsarist Russia.

Mensheviks' Perspective: 

Others (Mensheviks) favored an open party accessible to all, as in Germany.

2.4 A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia's Autocracy:

- Ruled by an autocracy in the early 20th century.

- Unlike many European rulers, 

• The Tsar had no parliament to answer to.

Campaign for Change:

- Russian liberals aimed to end autocracy.

- They joined forces with: 

• Social Democrats and 
• Socialist Revolutionaries.

Together, they collaborated with peasants and workers during the 1905 revolution to demand a constitution.

Diverse Support:

• Nationalists (in Poland) 
• In Muslim-dominated regions (jadidists) - modernized Islam - societal progress.

Note: Jadidists – Muslim reformers within the Russian empire

Tough Times in 1904:

- In 1904, Russian workers faced hardships.

- Prices of essential goods surged, 

• causing a 20% decline in real wages.

- Workers' association memberships grew rapidly.

Putilov Iron Works Strike (1904):

• 4 Assembly of Russian Workers members were fired at Putilov Iron Works.

• This led to a call for industrial action.

• Within days, 110,000+ St. Petersburg workers on strike demanding: 
• Reduction in the working day to eight hours, 
• An increase in wages and 
• Improvement in working conditions.

Bloody Sunday and the 1905 Revolution:

• Workers, led by Father Gapon, marched to the Winter Palace (Saint Petersburg)
• Police and Cossacks attacked the procession.

Note: A people in southern Russia who became aggressive warriors during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In place of taxes, they supplied the Russian Empire with scouts and mounted soldiers.

• Result: Over 100 dead and 300 wounded in the Bloody Sunday incident.

Nationwide Response:

• Bloody Sunday ignited the 1905 Revolution.
• Strikes erupted across the country.
• Universities closed due to student protests against civil liberties.

Middle-Class Demands:

• The Union of Unions was formed by middle-class professionals.
• They demanded a constituent assembly for reforms.

Post-1905 Changes in Russia:

Duma Created: Tsar allowed an elected Duma during the 1905 Revolution.

Worker Groups Formed: Trade unions and factory committees appeared briefly.

Illegal Operations: Most groups worked unofficially due to being banned.

Political Limits: Severe restrictions on political activity.

Duma Dismissals: Tsar dismissed: 

• the first Duma in 75 days and 
• the second in three months.

Third Duma Manipulated: 

Why?

• He resisted any questioning of his authority or power reduction.

• Voting laws changed, 
• third Duma packed with conservatives, 
• excluding liberals and revolutionaries.

2.5 The First World War and the Russian Empire

First World War (1914-1918):

Broke out between two European alliances – 

• The Central powers: Germany, Austria and Turkey
• The Allied powers: France, Britain and Russia (later Italy and Romania). 

War within and Outside Europe:

• Each country had a global empire 
• Fought war in Europe and outside Europe.

Russia and IWW:

War began with popular support for Tsar Nicholas II.

Later support declined, Why?

• Tsar's refusal to involve Duma parties 

But Anti- German sentiments ran high: 

• Renaming St Petersburg as Petrograd.
• Tsarina Alexandra's German background and (poor adviser) Rasputin's influence caused unpopularity.

Contrasting Fronts in WWI

Western Front:

• Trench warfare in eastern France.
• Stagnant battles in fixed positions.

Eastern Front:

• Mobile armies and large-scale battles.
• Devastating defeats and heavy casualties.
• Russia's significant losses in Germany and Austria from 1914 to 1916.
•   Over 7 million casualties by 1917.

Retreat Consequences:

  - Russian army's retreat involved destroying crops and buildings.

  - Resulted in over 3 million refugees in Russia.

  - Discredited the government and Tsar.

  - Soldiers reluctant to continue such a war.

Impact of War on Industry

1. Russian Industries and Isolation:

• Russia had limited industries.
• the country was cut off from other suppliers of industrial goods by German control of the Baltic Sea..

2. Deterioration of Industrial Equipment:

• Industrial equipment deteriorated faster in Russia than elsewhere in Europe..
• Railway lines started breaking down by 1916.

3. Labor Shortages and Workshop Closures:

• Able-bodied men drafted into the war.
• Labor shortages led to the closure of small workshops.

4. Food Supply and Riots:

• Large grain supplies sent to feed the army.
• Scarcity of bread and flour in cities.
• Riots at bread shops by winter 1916.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

1. Winter of 1917 Conditions

   - Petrograd faced severe hardships in the winter of 1917.

  

2. City Layout = Division amongst people

   - Workers' areas and factories on the right bank of the River Neva.

   - Left bank held fashionable districts, the Winter Palace, and official buildings, including the Duma meeting place.

3. Food Shortages and Political Tensions

   - Food shortages hit workers' quarters hard.

   - The cold winter (frost and heavy snow) = increased problem

   - The Tsar's desire to dissolve the Duma faced opposition from those wanting to preserve the elected government.

4. The Start of Unrest

   - On February 22, a factory lockout on the right bank triggered unrest.

   - The next day, workers from fifty factories went on strike in solidarity.

   - Many women played a leading role in these strikes, marking the start of International Women's Day.

5. Unorganized Movement

   - Initially, no political party organized the movement.

   - Demonstrators moved from factory areas to the city center, Nevskii Prospekt.

6. Government Response

   - As workers surrounded the fashionable and official areas, the government imposed a curfew.

   - Demonstrators dispersed but returned on the 24th and 25th.

   - The government deployed cavalry and police to monitor the situation.

7. Suspension of the Duma:

   - On 25 February, the government suspended the Duma.

   - Politicians protested.

Result: Demonstrations and Uprising:

   - Strong demonstrations on the left bank on 26 February.

   - Police Headquarters ransacked on the 27th.

   - People raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours and democracy

8. Government response and Cavalry Refusal:

   - Government called out cavalry but they refused to fire on the crowd.

   - An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and three other regiments mutinied, voting to join the striking workers.

By that Evening:

   - A 'soviet' or 'council' formed by (soldiers and striking workers) the evening known as Petrograd Soviet.

in the same building as the Duma met.

9. Next Day

   - The delegation went to see the Tsar. 

   - Military commanders advised him to abdicate - He followed their advice and abdicated on 2 March 1917.

   - Soviet and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government.

   - A constituent assembly - elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage - would decide Russia's future with universal suffrage.

Petrograd had led the February Revolution that brought down the monarchy in February 1917.

Read Box 1:

Women in the February Revolution ‘Women workers, often ... inspired their male co-workers ... At the Lorenz telephone factory, ... Marfa Vasileva almost single handedly called a successful strike. Already that morning, in celebration of Women’s Day, women workers had presented red bows to the men ... Then Marfa Vasileva, a milling machine operator stopped work and declared an impromptu strike. The workers on the floor were ready to support her ... The foreman informed the management and sent her a loaf of bread. She took the bread but refused to go back to work. The administrator asked her again why she refused to work and she replied, “I cannot be the only one who is satiated when others are hungry”. Women workers from another section of the factory gathered around Marfa in support and gradually all the other women ceased working. Soon the men downed their tools as well and the entire crowd rushed onto the street.’ From: Choi Chatterji, Celebrating Women (2002). 1. What did Marfa Vasileva do to initiate a strike at the Lorenz telephone factory?    a) Organized a women's meeting    b) Presented red bows to male co-workers    c) Convinced the factory foreman    d) Refused to work and declared an impromptu strike 2. How did Marfa Vasileva respond when offered a loaf of bread by the foreman?    a) She accepted and returned to work.    b) She refused to take the bread.    c) She shared the bread with other workers.    d) She ate the bread but continued the strike. 3. What was the main reason Marfa Vasileva gave for refusing to work during the strike?    a) She was tired and needed a break.    b) She wanted better working conditions.    c) She couldn't work while others were hungry.    d) She disagreed with the factory's management. 4. How did the strike initiated by Marfa Vasileva at the Lorenz telephone factory eventually unfold?    a) Only women participated in the strike.    b) Men supported her, and the strike expanded.    c) The strike was quickly suppressed by the factory administrator.    d) Marfa Vasileva went back to work after a brief protest. 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. b

Date of the Russian Revolution Russia followed the Julian calendar until 1 February 1918. The country then changed to the Gregorian calendar, which is followed everywhere today. The Gregorian dates are 13 days ahead of the Julian dates. So by our calendar, the ‘February’ Revolution took place on 12th March and the ‘October’ Revolution took place on 7th November.

3.1 After February

1. Influence of Different Groups:

   - Provisional Government influenced by: 

• army officials, 
• landowners, and 
• industrialists.

   - Liberals and socialists within the government aimed for an elected government.

2. Reforms

   - Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.

   - ‘Soviets’, like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed.

3. Return of Vladimir Lenin:

   - In April 1917, Lenin returned from exile.

   - Three demands - Lenin’s ‘April Theses’.

• He declared that the war be brought to a close, 
• land be transferred to the peasants, and 
• banks be nationalised.

Proposed renaming the Bolshevik Party as the Communist Party.

4. Bolshevik Party's Shift:

   - Initially, most Bolsheviks thought the time was not yet ripe for socialist revolution and the Provisional Government needed to be supported.

- Subsequent developments led to a change in their attitude towards a socialist revolution.

1917 Summer Developments:

1. Worker's Movement:

   - Workers' movement expanded during the summer.

   - Factory committees questioned industrialists' practices.

   - Trade unions grew in number.

2. Soldiers' Committees:

   - Soldiers' committees emerged within the army.

3. All Russian Congress:

   - In June, 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of Soviets.

4. Provisional Government's Response: 

    -saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence grow

stern measures:

   - Resisted worker attempts to run factories.

   - Arrested leaders and 

   - Repressed Bolshevik-led demonstrations in July 1917.

   - Many Bolshevik leaders had to go into hiding or flee.

5. Peasant Land Redistribution:

   - Peasants and Socialist Revolutionary leaders advocated land redistribution.

   - Land committees were established.

   - Peasants seized land between July and September 1917 with Socialist Revolutionary support.

Fig.11 – Lenin (left) and Trotskii (right) with workers at Petrograd. Some important dates :  1850s -1880s : Debates over socialism in Russsia. 1898: Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party. 1905: The Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905. 1917: 2nd March - Abdication of the Tsar. 24th October - Bolshevik unprising in Petrograd. 1918-20: The Civil War. 1919: Formation of Comintern. 1929: Beginning of Collectivisation.

3.2 The Revolution of October 1917:

1. Growing Conflict:

   - Tensions between the Provisional Government and Bolsheviks escalated.

   - Lenin feared the government would establish a dictatorship.

2. Preparations for Uprising:

   - Lenin initiated discussions for an uprising against the Government in September 1917.

   - Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets and factories were brought together.

3. Uprising Plan:

   - On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party support for a socialist seizure of power.

   - A Military Revolutionary Committee led by Leon Trotsky was formed to organize the seizure.

October 1917 Uprising:

1. Uprising Initiated:

   - On 24 October, the Bolshevik uprising began.

   - Sensing trouble, Prime Minister Kerenskii left Petrograd to gather troops.

2. Government Response:

   - Government Military loyalists seized two Bolshevik newspaper buildings.

   - Pro-government Troops secured communication offices (telephone and telegraph) and protected the Winter Palace.

3. Swift Bolshevik Action:

   - The Military Revolutionary Committee ordered the seizure of government offices and arrest of ministers.

   - Late in the day, The ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace.

   - Other vessels sailed down the Neva and took over various military points.

4. Petrograd Under Bolshevik Control:

   - By nightfall, the city was under the committee's control.

   - Ministers surrendered.

   - Majority of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd supported the Bolshevik action.

5. Uprisings in Other Cities:

   - Uprisings occurred in various cities.

   - There was heavy fighting – especially in Moscow

6. Bolshevik Control:

   - By December, the Bolsheviks dominated the Moscow-Petrograd area.

What Changed after October?

Bolsheviks' Stance on Private Property and Nationalization (1917):

- Bolsheviks staunchly opposed private property.

- Most industries and banks were nationalized in November 1917.

- Nationalization meant the government took over ownership and management.

Land Reforms and Peasant Seizures:

- Land was declared social property.

- Peasants were allowed to seize land from the nobility.

Urban Reforms and Cultural Changes:

- Bolsheviks partitioned large houses in cities according to family needs.

- Use of old aristocratic titles was banned.

- New uniforms were designed for the army and officials in 1918.

- A clothing competition led to the selection of the Soviet hat (budeonovka) as part of the new attire.

Bolshevik Party Transformation and Electoral Challenges:

Bolshevik Party renamed as Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support.

Assembly Rejection and Lenin's Response:

• In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures.
• Lenin dismissed the Assembly. 

He thought the All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic than an assembly elected in uncertain conditions.

Political Strategy and Peace Negotiations:

• March 1918: Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk, despite opposition from political allies.
• In the years that followed, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country.

Trade unions were tightly controlled by the party.

The secret police, initially called the Cheka and later known as OGPU and NKVD, punished critics of the Bolsheviks.

Many young writers and artists supported the Party for its socialist ideals and desire for change.

After October 1917, this led to experiments in the arts and architecture.

However, many grew disillusioned due to the Party's encouragement of censorship.